Prosocial Behaviour Essay

Prosocial airs atomic number 18 voluntary styles made with the intention of benefiting others (Eisenberg & Fabes, 1998). This definition c arfully circumvents the potential benefits to the person performing the prosocial behavior. Prosocial behavior is much accompanied with psychological and social rewards for its performer. In the long run, idiosyncratics butt benefit from living in a society where prosociality is common (which, in evolutionary terms, cast ups reproductive potential). It has therefore been difficult for researchers to identify purely unselfish behaviors, benefiting only the recipient and not the performer. Nevertheless, behaviors benefiting others, but whose main goal is self-advantageous (e.g. cooperative behaviors intended to obtain a common resource), typically are not considered prosocial. Typical examples include volunteering sharing toys, treats, or food with friends slavish armed service (e.g., helping a peer with tutor assignments) costly help (e. g. risking unrivaleds stimulate life to save others) and steamyly supporting others in distress (e.g., comforting a peer pursual a disap bear witnessing experience or caring for a person who is ill). DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGESProsocial behavior has grow in human evolutionary history as de Waals comparison with other species shows. Nevertheless, Fehr and Fischbacher note that earth are unique in their degree of prosociality. Hoffmans theory proposes that prosocial behavior becomes increasingly other-oriented as peasantren mature. Infants get self-distress in reaction to the distress of others because they are incapable of differentiating their own experiences from those of others. Gradually, self-distress is replaced by other-oriented concern, requiring some understanding of others cordial states (Hoffman, 2000). Zahn-Waxler, Robinson, and Emde show that by age 4, many shaverren can react empathically to others, including offering help to those in distress. The 1998 Eisenberg an d Fabes meta-analysis put together that prosocial behavior increases with age, although increases varied in size, depending on the methodological aspects of each study. In one study by Benenson, Pascoe, and Radmore, about 60 percent of 4-year old children donated at least one of 10 stickers they received to a peer, and about 85 percent did so at age 9. This increase was markedly elevated for higher-SES children compared to lower-SES children. From childhood to adolescence further increases are found in sharing, but not in helping or providing emotional support (Eisenberg & Fabes, 1998). The boost in prosocial behavior with age is attributed to increaseal increases in cognitive abilities associated with detecting others needfully and determining ways to help, in empathy-related responding, and in the moral understanding of the magnificence of helping others (Eisenberg et al., 2006). CONTEXTUAL AND individualist INFLUENCESMany contextual factors are associated with prosocial beh avior. For example, Cole and colleagues report short-term success for television programs designed to increase childrens prosociality. Social psychological experiments consistently show that recognizing a situation as requiring assistance, involving personal responsibility, and modify oneself to help, all increase helping behavior (Penner, Dovidio, Piliavin, & Schroeder, 2005). Individuals are more likely to provide support in situations that promote personal psychological and material rewards, or where the costs (e.g., guilt) associated with not helping are prominent. Finally, individuals are more likely to behave prosocially towards similar or likable others (Penner et al., 2005), and towards others considered to be close, especially kin (Graziano et al., 2007). This drill may reflect an ultimate evolutionary goal of kin selection as described by Hamilton, although de Waal notes that helpers psychological goals may be quite different. Genetic relatedness aside, prosocial behavio r towards family members probably involves a sense of duty, reciprocity, and affectional relationships.Rushton describes moderate consistency in individuals prosocial behavior across varying situations and contexts, demonstrating both stable individual differences in prosociality and the importance of contextual factors. look following children from early childhood to adulthood supports the existence of the long-debated altruistic or prosocial personality (Eisenberg et al., 1999). Individual differences in prosociality are linked to sociability, low shyness, extroversion, and agreeableness, although specific prosocial behaviors may require a combination of additional traits, such as perceived self-efficacy in the case of helping (Penner et al., 2005). Researchers Bardi and Schwartz highlight the importance of individuals specific prosocial values, including emphasizing the importance of the welfare of others, as an additional variable likely to influence prosocial behavior. reput ation and contextual variables are likely to interact in determining prosocial behavior. For example, agreeable individuals were more likely to help an outgroup member than low-agreeableness individuals, but agreeableness was not associated with helping an ingroup member (Graziano et al., 2007). Environmental factors linked to individual differences in childrens prosociality include parental modeling of helping behavior and use of inductive chastisement (e.g., explaining to children the consequences of their behavior) as opposed to power-assertive discipline (e.g., punishment) (Eisenberg & Fabes, 1998). Beyond parental influence, siblings, peers, and develops also may affect prosociality. For example, as Wentzel, McNamara, and Caldwell point out, childrens prosociality may be influenced by close friends. Furthermore, the better the affective quality of the friendship, the more influential friends are to each others prosociality. Genetics also contribute to individual variation in prosociality. Research on adults finds that prosociality is substantially heritable. Research on young children shows lower heritability, demonstrated by one longitudinal twin study showing increases in the heritability of parent-rated prosociality, from 30 percent at age 2 to 60 percent at age 7 (Knafo & Plomin, 2006). Genetic and environmental effects are very much intertwined. For example, parental reasoning may be more effective with highly attentive children, while out-of-door rewards may go away better for other children. These geneenvironment interactions, in which childrens genetically influenced tendencies interact with environmental influences in determining behavior, are highly likely. Further investigation is necessary of gene-environment interactions with regard to prosociality.Gene-environment correlations can also fashion individual differences in prosociality. For example, childrens low prosociality is related to parents use of nix discipline and affection. This relationship can be traced back to childrens genetic tendencies, implying that the genetically influenced low prosociality can initiate a negative reaction from parents (Knafo & Plomin, 2006). Gender and culture are additional predictors of prosocial behavior. A meta-analysis found small differences favoring girls in prosocial behavior, little than expected based on gender stereotypes and lower for instrumental help than for other prosocial behaviors (Eisenberg & Fabes, 1998). Some order suggests that children in Western societies are less prosocial than children in other cultures, but some studies find no differences along these lines (see review by Eisenberg et al., 2006). A field study by Levine, Norenzayan, and Philbrick found large ethnic differences in spontaneously helping strangers. For example, the proportion of individuals helping a stranger with a hurt leg pick up dropped magazines ranged from 22 percent to 95 percent across 23 cultures. Although national riches was negatively associated with helping rates, the closely related cultural value of individualism-collectivism (individualism is on average higher in richer countries) was not related. A compelling cultural explanation for cross-national differences in prosocial behavior was still needed as of 2008. Perhaps, cultures differ substantially in what each promotes as prosocial behavior (Eisenberg et al., 2006). RELATION TO OTHER ASPECTS OF SCHOOL biddingClark and Ladd find that prosocial children are relatively well adjusted and have better peer relationships than less prosocial children. extremely prosocial children have more friends and report a better quality of friendship, relative to less prosocial children. Caprara and colleagues find cocksure relationships between childrens early prosocial behavior and later academician achievement, and plus peer relations (statistically controlling for earlier achievement). The exact nature of these relationships has yet to be determined. Pos sibly, prosocial childrens superior social skills enable them to work better with peers and to get along better with teachers. Alternatively, earlier prosociality represents self-regulation abilities needed for later achievement. Similarly, a finding by Johnson and colleaguesthat volunteering adolescents have higher grade point averages and intrinsic motivation toward schoolwork may indicate that volunteering increases academic self-esteem. Furthermore, adolescents who volunteer may receive preferential treatment from teachers, increasing their achievement. HOW TEACHERS AND SCHOOLS CAN PROMOTE PROSOCIAL BEHAVIORAlthough experimental studies suggest that preschool teachers usually do little to encourage prosocial behavior, teachers behavior and school policies can promote pro-sociality. Positive, warm, and beneficial teacher-student relationships are associated with childrens prosociality (Eisenberg et al., 2006). To overrule the possibility that highly adjusted children are both p rosocial and elicit positive reactions from teachers, intervention studies are essential. A five-year longitudinal study by Solomon and colleagues finds that prepare teachers to promote childrens prosociality and developmental discipline increases childrens prosocial values and behaviors. The program provided children with an opportunity to work collaboratively in small groups and participate in activities designed to promote social understanding. It emphasized prosocial values through the use of relevant media and highlighting childrens positive behaviors and provided opportunities for active helping such as a buddy program that assigned previous(a) children to help younger peers. In another school intervention inform by Fraser and colleagues, children received training designed to teach social problem-solving skills and to reduce peer rejection. Simultaneously, parents participated in home lessons designed to improve parenting skills (e.g., child development, parent-child commu nication, problem-solving, and discipline). Intervention children increased in prosocial behavior in comparison to the control group. Another experimental school program reported by Flan-nery and colleagues shows longitudinal gains in childrens prosocial behavior by altering school climate by teaching students and staff five simple rules and activities (a) praise people, (b) avoid put-downs, (c) seek orthogonal people as advisers and friends, (d) notice and correct hurts one causes, and (e) right wrongs. McMahon and Washburn point out that effective interventions lots work to address students empathy and problem-solving skills and are often tailored to the cultural, developmental, and behavioral characteristics of students.Research by Kazdin, Bass, Siegel, and Thomas reveals the force of cognitive-behavioral therapy in increasing prosociality in children with severe antisocial behavior. Another violence prevention program reported by DeCarlo and Hockman improves male urban Afric an American students prosocial skills through analysis of relevant RAP melody lyrics. Furthermore, Lakes and Hoyt show the effectiveness of tae-kwon-do training at primary school to improve self-regulation and prosocial behavior among boys and, to a lesser extent, girls. Attention/play interventions by school psychologists with highly aggressive boys (modeling, role-playing, coaching, feedback, and discussion of play strategies), by Dubow and colleagues longways decrease aggression and increase prosocial behavior. These studies demonstrate the usefulness of non-preaching approaches to prosocial development. See alsoMoral Development, Social SkillsBIBLIOGRAPHYBardi, A., & Schwartz, S.H. (2000). set and behavior Strength and structure of relations. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29(10),12071220. Benenson, J. F., Pascoe, J., & Radmore, N. (2007). Childrens altruistic behavior in the dictator game. Evolution and Human Behavior, 28, 168175. Caprara, G. V., Barbaranelli, C ., Pastorelli, C., Bandura, A., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2000). Prosocial foundations of childrens academic achievement. Psychological Science, 11(4), 302306. Clark, K. E., & Ladd, G. W. (2000). Connectedness and autonomy support in parent-child relationships Links to childrens socioemotional orientation and peer relationships. Developmental Psychology, 36, 485498. Cole, C. F., Arafat, C., Tidhar, C., Tafesh, W. Z., Fox, N. A., et al. (2003). The educational impact of Rechov Sumsum/Sharaa Simsim A sesame Street television series to promote respect and understanding among children living in Israel, the West slang and Gaza. world(prenominal) journal of Behavioral Development, 27, 409422. DeCarlo, A., & Hockman, E. (2003). RAP therapy A group work intervention method for urban adolescents. Social Work with Groups, 26(3), 4559. De Waal, F. B. M. (2007). Putting the altruism back into altruism The evolution of empathy. Annual refreshen of Psychology, 59(4), 4.14.22. Dubow, E. F., Huesmann, L. R., & Eron, L. D. (1987). Mitigating aggression and promoting prosocial behavior inaggressive elementary schoolboys. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 25(6), 527531. Eisenberg, N., & Fabes, R.A.(1998). Prosocial Development. In W. Damon, (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology Social, emotional, and personality development (Vol. 3, pp. 701778). New York Wiley. Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., & Spinrad, T. L. (2006). Prosocial development. In N. Eisenberg (Vol. Ed.), W. Damon & R. M. Lerner (Series Eds.), Handbook of child psychology Social, emotional, and personality development (Vol. 3, pp. 646718). New York Wiley. Eisenberg, N., Guthrie, B., Murphy, C., Shepard, S. A., Cumberland, A., & Carlo, G. (1999). Consistency and development of prosocial dispositions A longitudinal study. Child Development, 70(6), 13601372. Fehr, E., & Fischbacher, U. (2003). The nature of human altruism.Nature, 425(6960), 785791. Flannery, D. J., Liau, A. K., Powell, K. E., Vesterdal, W., Vazsonyi, A.T., Guo, S ., et al. (2003). Initial behavior outcomes for the peacebuilders universal school-based violence prevention program.Developmental Psychology, 39, 292308. Fraser, M. W., Day, S. H., Galinsky, M. J., Hodges, V. G., & Smokowski, P. R. (2004). Conduct problems and peer rejection in childhood A randomized running game of the making choices and strong families programs. Research on Social Work Practice, 14, 313324. Graziano, W. G., Habashi, M. M., Sheese, B. E., & Tobin, R. M. (2007). Agreeableness, empathy, and helping A person X situation perspective. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93(4), 58359. Hamilton, W. D. (1964). The genetical evolution of social behaviour I and II. Journal of Theoretical Biology 7, 152. Hoffman, M. L. (2000).Empathy and moral development Implications for caring and justice. New York Cambridge University Press. Johnson, M. K., Beebe, T., Mortimer, J. T., & Snyder, M. (1998). Volunteerism in adolescence A process perspective. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 8(3), 309332. Kazdin, A. E., Bass, D., Siegel, T., & Thomas, C. (1989). Cognitive-behavioral therapy and relationship therapy in the treatment of children referred for antisocial behavior. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57(4), 522535. Knafo, A., & Plomin, R. (2006). enatic discipline and affection and childrens prosocial behavior Genetic and environmental links.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 147164. Lakes, K. D., & Hoyt, W. T. (2004). Promoting self-regulation through school-based warlike arts training. Applied Developmental Psychology, 25, 283302.Levine, R. V., Norenzayan, A., & Philbrick, K. (2001). Cross-cultural differences in helping strangers. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 32, 543560. McMahon, S. D., & Washburn, J. J. (2003). Violence prevention An evaluation of program effects with urban African American students. Journal of Primary Prevention, 24(1), 4362. Penner, L. A., Dovidio, J. F., Piliavin, J. A., & Schroeder, D . A. (2005). Prosocial behavior multilevel perspectives. Annual Reviews of Psychology, 56, 365392. Rushton, J. P. (1984). The altruistic personality Evidence from laboratory, naturalistic, and self-report perspectives. In E. Staub, D. Bar-Tal, J. Karylowski, & J. Reykowski (Eds.), The Development and Maintenance of Prosocial Behavior International Perspectives on Positive Development (pp. 271290). New York Plenum. Solomon, D., Watson, M. S., Delucchi, K. L., Scraps, E., & Battistich, V. (1988). Enhancing childrens prosocial behavior in the classroom. American Educational Research Journal, 25, 527554. Wentzel, K. R., McNamara, B. C., & Caldwell, K. A. (2004). Friendships in middle school influences on motivation and school adjustment. Journal of Education Psychology, 96(2), 195203. Zahn-Waxler, C., Robinson, J. L., & Emde, R. N. (1992). The development of empathy in twins. Developmental Psychology, 28(6), 10381047.http//www.education.com/reference/article/prosocial-behavior/